Complete Rules of Professional Conduct

Commentary

[1] A solicitor and client relationship may be established without formality.

[2] When an individual consults a lawyer in a representative capacity, the client is the corporation, partnership, organization, or other legal entity that the individual is representing.

[3] For greater clarity, a client does not include a near-client, such as an affiliated entity, director, shareholder, employee or family member, unless there is objective evidence to demonstrate that such an individual had a reasonable expectation that a lawyer-client relationship would be established.

[Amended - October 2014]

Commentary

[1] In this context, "substantial risk" means that the risk is significant and plausible, even if it is not certain or even probable that the material adverse effect will occur.

[New - October 2014]

Commentary

[1] Where a client elects to waive independent legal representation but to rely on independent legal advice only, the retained lawyer has a responsibility that should not be lightly assumed or perfunctorily discharged.

Commentary

[1] Integrity is the fundamental quality of any person who seeks to practise as a member of the legal profession. If a client has any doubt about their lawyer's trustworthiness, the essential element in the true lawyer-client relationship will be missing. If integrity is lacking, the lawyer's usefulness to the client and reputation within the profession will be destroyed, regardless of how competent the lawyer may be.

[2] Public confidence in the administration of justice and in the legal profession may be eroded by a lawyer's irresponsible conduct. Accordingly, a lawyer's conduct should reflect favourably on the legal profession, inspire the confidence, respect and trust of clients and of the community, and avoid even the appearance of impropriety.

[3] Dishonourable or questionable conduct on the part of a lawyer in either private life or professional practice will reflect adversely upon the integrity of the profession and the administration of justice. Whether within or outside the professional sphere, if the conduct is such that knowledge of it would be likely to impair a client's trust in the lawyer, the Law Society may be justified in taking disciplinary action.

[4] Generally, however, the Law Society will not be concerned with the purely private or extra-professional activities of a lawyer that do not bring into question the lawyer's professional integrity.

[4.1] A lawyer has special responsibilities by virtue of the privileges afforded the legal profession and the important role it plays in a free and democratic society and in the administration of justice, including a special responsibility to recognize the diversity of the Ontario community, to protect the dignity of individuals, and to respect human rights laws in force in Ontario.

Commentary

[1] Collectively, lawyers are encouraged to enhance the profession through activities such as:

(a) sharing knowledge and experience with colleagues and students informally in day-to-day practice as well as through contribution to professional journals and publications, support of law school projects and participation in panel discussions, legal education seminars and university lectures;

(b) participating in legal aid and community legal services programs or providing legal services on a pro bono basis;

(c) filling elected and volunteer positions with the Law Society;

(d) acting as directors, officers and members of local, provincial, national and international bar associations and their various committees and sections; and

(e) acting as directors, officers and members of non-profit or charitable organizations.

[2] When participating in community activities, lawyers should be mindful of the possible perception that the lawyer is providing legal advice and a lawyer -client relationship has been created.

Commentary

[1] This rule should be read and applied in conjunction with the rules in Section 3.1 regarding competence.

[2] An ordinarily or otherwise competent lawyer may still occasionally fail to provide an adequate quality of service.

[3] to [5] [FLSC - not in use]

[6] A lawyer should meet deadlines, unless the lawyer is able to offer a reasonable explanation and ensure that no prejudice to the client will result. Whether or not a specific deadline applies, a lawyer should be prompt in handling a matter, responding to communications and reporting developments to the client. In the absence of developments, contact with the client should be maintained to the extent the client reasonably expects.

Commentary

[1] Reducing to writing the discussions and agreement with the client about the limited scope retainer assists the lawyer and client in understanding the limitations of the service to be provided and any risks of the retainer.

[1.1] In certain circumstances, such as when the client is in custody, it may not be possible to give him or her a copy of the document. In this type of situation, the lawyer should keep a record of the limited scope retainer in the client file and, when practicable, provide a copy of the document to the client.

[2] A lawyer who is providing legal services under a limited scope retainer should be careful to avoid acting such that it appears that the lawyer is providing services to the client under a full retainer.

[3] [FLSC - not in use]

[4] A lawyer who is providing legal services under a limited scope retainer should consider how communications from opposing counsel in a matter should be managed. See rule 7.2-6A and rules 7.2-8 to 7.2-8.2.

[5] [FLSC - not in use]

[5.1] A lawyer should ordinarily confirm with the client in writing when the limited scope retainer is complete. Where appropriate under the rules of the tribunal, the lawyer may consider providing notice to the tribunal that the retainer is complete.

[5.2] In addition to the requirements of Rule 3.2-9, a lawyer who is asked to provide legal services under a limited scope retainer to a client who has diminished capacity to make decisions should carefully consider and assess in each case if, under the circumstances, it is possible to render those services in a competent manner.

[5.3] Where the limited services being provided include an appearance before a tribunal, a lawyer must be careful not to mislead the tribunal as to the scope of the retainer, and should consider whether disclosure of the limited nature of the retainer is required by the rules of practice or the circumstances.

[5.4] A lawyer should also consider whether the existence of a limited scope retainer should be disclosed to the tribunal or to an opposing party or, if represented, to an opposing party's counsel and whether the lawyer should obtain instructions from the client to make the disclosure.

[Amended - June 2015]

Commentary

[1] The consultation referred to in rule 3.2-1A.2(d) may include advice on preventative, protective, pro-active or procedural measures relating to the client's legal matter, after which the client may agree to retain the lawyer.

Commentary

[1] [FLSC - not in use]

[1.1] A lawyer has a duty of candour with the client on matters relevant to the retainer. This arises out of the rules and the lawyer's fiduciary obligations to the client. The duty of candour requires a lawyer to inform the client of information known to the lawyer that may affect the interests of the client in the matter.

[1.2] In some limited circumstances, it may be appropriate to withhold information from a client. For example, with client consent, a lawyer may act where the lawyer receives information on a "for counsel's eyes only" basis. However, it would not be appropriate to act for a client where the lawyer has relevant material information about that client received through a different retainer. In those circumstances the lawyer cannot be honest and candid with the client and should not act.

[2] The lawyer's duty to the client who seeks legal advice is to give the client a competent opinion based on a sufficient knowledge of the relevant facts, an adequate consideration of the applicable law, and the lawyer's own experience and expertise. The advice must be open and undisguised and must clearly disclose what the lawyer honestly thinks about the merits and probable results.

[2.1] A lawyer who is acting for both the borrower and the lender in a mortgage or loan transaction should also refer to rule 3.4-15 regarding the lawyer's duty of disclosure to their clients.

[3] [FLSC - not in use]

[Amended - September 2015]

Commentary

[1] The lawyer should advise the client of the client's language rights as soon as possible.

[2] The choice of language is that of the client not the lawyer. The lawyer should be aware of relevant statutory and constitutional law relating to language rights including the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, s. 19(1) and Part XVII of the Criminal Code regarding language rights in courts under federal jurisdiction and in criminal proceedings. The lawyer should also be aware that provincial or territorial legislation may provide additional language rights, including in relation to aboriginal languages.

[3] When a lawyer considers whether to provide the required services in the language chosen by the client, the lawyer should carefully consider whether it is possible to render those services in a competent manner as required by Rule 3.1-2 and related Commentary.

Commentary

[1] A lawyer acting for an organization should keep in mind that the organization, as such, is the client and that a corporate client has a legal personality distinct from its shareholders, officers, directors, and employees. While the organization or corporation will act and give instructions through its officers, directors, employees, members, agents, or representatives, the lawyer should ensure that it is the interests of the organization that are to be served and protected. Further, given that an organization depends upon persons to give instructions, the lawyer should ensure that the person giving instructions for the organization is acting within that person's actual or ostensible authority.

[2] In addition to acting for the organization, the lawyer may also accept a joint retainer and act for a person associated with the organization. An example might be a lawyer advising about liability insurance for an officer of an organization. In such cases the lawyer acting for an organization should be alert to the prospects of conflicts of interest and should comply with the rules about the avoidance of conflicts of interest (Section 3.4, Conflicts).

Commentary

[1] It is important to consider the use of alternative dispute resolution (ADR). When appropriate, the lawyer should inform the client of ADR options and, if so instructed, take steps to pursue those options.

[1.1] In criminal, quasi-criminal or regulatory complaint proceedings, it is not improper for a lawyer for an accused or potential accused to communicate with a complainant or potential complainant to obtain factual information, arrange for restitution or an apology from an accused, or defend or settle any civil matters between the accused and the complainant. See also rule 7.2-6.

[1.2] When the complainant or potential complainant is unrepresented, the lawyer should have regard to the rules respecting unrepresented persons and make it clear that the lawyer is acting exclusively in the interests of the accused. If the complainant or potential complainant is vulnerable, the lawyer should take care not to take unfair or improper advantage of the circumstances. When communicating with an unrepresented complainant or potential complainant, it is prudent to have a witness present.

Commentary

[1] It is an abuse of the process of a court or, ordinarily, a regulatory authority to threaten to make or advance a charge or complaint in order to secure the satisfaction of a private grievance. Even if a client has a legitimate entitlement to be paid monies, threats to take penal action are not appropriate.

[2] It is not improper, however, to notify the appropriate authority of conduct that may attract penal or regulatory consequences while also taking steps through the civil system. Nor is it improper for a lawyer to request that another lawyer comply with an undertaking or trust condition or other professional obligation or face being reported to the Law Society. The impropriety stems from threatening to use penal or regulatory proceedings for unintended purposes.

[3] A complaint to a regulatory authority is justified if it is reasonable and lawful, for example when a regulatory process is intended to provide redress or a remedy to individuals for the matter complained of.

Commentary

[1] Rule 3.2-7 which states that a lawyer must not knowingly assist in or encourage dishonesty, fraud, crime or illegal conduct, applies whether the lawyer's knowledge is actual or in the form of wilful blindness or recklessness. A lawyer should also be on guard against becoming the tool or dupe of an unscrupulous client or persons associated with such a client or any other person. Rules 3.2-7.2 to 3.2-7.3 speak to these issues.

[2] A lawyer should be alert to and avoid unwittingly becoming involved with a client or any other person who is engaged in criminal activity such as mortgage fraud or money laundering. Vigilance is required because the means for these and other criminal activities may be transactions for which lawyers commonly provide services such as

(a) establishing, purchasing or selling business entities;

(b) arranging financing for the purchase or sale or operation of business entities;

(c) arranging financing for the purchase or sale of business assets; and

(d) purchasing and selling real estate.

[3] To obtain information about the client and about the subject matter and objectives of the retainer, the lawyer may, for example, need to verify who are the legal or beneficial owners of property and business entities, verify who has the control of business entities, and clarify the nature and purpose of a complex or unusual transaction where the purpose is not clear. The lawyer should make a record of the results of these inquiries. It is especially important to obtain this information where a lawyer has suspicions or doubts about whether he or she might be assisting a client or any other person in dishonesty, fraud, crime or illegal conduct.

[3.1] Lawyers should be vigilant in identifying the presence of "red flags" in their areas of practice and make inquiries to determine whether a proposed retainer relates to a bona fide transaction. Information on " Red Flags in Real Estate Transactions" appears below.

[3.2] A client or another person may attempt to use a lawyer's trust account for improper purposes, such as hiding funds, money laundering or tax sheltering. These situations highlight the fact that when handling trust funds, it is important for a lawyer to be aware of their obligations under these rules and the Law Society's by-laws that regulate the handling of trust funds.

[4] A bona fide test case is not necessarily precluded by rule 3.2-7 and, so long as no injury to the person or violence is involved, a lawyer may properly advise and represent a client who, in good faith and on reasonable grounds, desires to challenge or test a law and the test can most effectively be made by means of a technical breach giving rise to a test case. In all situations, the lawyer should ensure that the client appreciates the consequences of bringing a test case.

[Amended - October 2014]

Red Flags in Real Estate Transactions

[4.1] A lawyer representing any party in a real estate transaction should be vigilant in identifying the presence of "red flags" and make inquiries to determine whether it is a bona fide transaction. Red flags include such things as

(a) purchase price manipulations (revealed by, for example, deposits purportedly paid directly to the vendor, price escalations and "flips" in which a property is sold and re-sold within a short period of time for a substantially higher price, reductions in the balance due on closing in consideration of extra credits or deposits not required by the purchase agreement, amendments to the purchase price not disclosed to the mortgage lender, the acceptance on closing of an amount less than the balance due, a mortgage advance which approximates or exceeds the balance due resulting in surplus mortgage proceeds, and so on);

(b) a nominal role for one or more parties (fraud is sometimes effected through the use of "straw people", who may not exist or whose identities have either been purchased or stolen, as well as through the suspicious use of powers of attorney);

(c) the purchaser contributes no funds or only a nominal amount towards the purchase price or the balance due on closing;

(d) signs that the parties are concealing a non-arm's length relationship or are colluding with respect to the purchase price;

(e) suspicious or repeated third-party involvement (for example, giving instructions, supplying client directions or identification, and providing or receiving funds on closing); and

(f) the proceeds of sale are disbursed or directed to be paid to parties who are unrelated to the transaction.

[4.2] The red flags listed above are not an exhaustive list. Further information regarding red flags is available from many sources, including the "Fighting Real Estate Fraud" page within the "Practice Resources" section of the website of the Law Society. Fraudulent real estate schemes and the red flags associated with such schemes are numerous and evolving. Lawyers who practise real estate law have a professional obligation therefore to educate themselves on an ongoing basis regarding the red flags of real estate fraud.

Commentary

[1] The past, present, or intended misconduct of an organization may have harmful and serious consequences, not only for the organization and its constituency but also for the public, who rely on organizations to provide a variety of goods and services. In particular, the misconduct of publicly traded commercial and financial corporations may have serious consequences for the public at large. This rule addresses some of the professional responsibilities of a lawyer acting for an organization, including a corporation, when he or she learns that the organization has acted, is acting, or proposes to act in a way that is dishonest, fraudulent, criminal or illegal. In addition to these rules, the lawyer may need to consider, for example, the rules and commentary about confidentiality (Section 3.3)

[2] This rule speaks of conduct that is dishonest, fraudulent, criminal or illegal

[3] Such conduct includes acts of omission. Indeed, often it is the omissions of an organization, such as failing to make required disclosure or to correct inaccurate disclosures that constitute the wrongful conduct to which these rules relate. Conduct likely to result in substantial harm to the organization, as opposed to genuinely trivial misconduct by an organization, invokes this rule.

[4] In determining their responsibilities under this rule, a lawyer should consider whether it is feasible and appropriate to give any advice in writing.

[5] A lawyer acting for an organization who learns that the organization has acted, is acting, or intends to act in a wrongful manner may advise the chief executive officer and shall advise the chief legal officer of the misconduct. If the wrongful conduct is not abandoned or stopped, the lawyer shall report the matter "up the ladder" of responsibility within the organization until the matter is dealt with appropriately. If the organization, despite the lawyer's advice, continues with the wrongful conduct, the lawyer shall withdraw from acting in the particular matter in accordance with rule 3.7-1. In some but not all cases, withdrawal means resigning from their position or relationship with the organization and not simply withdrawing from acting in the particular matter.

[6] This rules recognizes that lawyers as the legal advisers to organizations are in a central position to encourage organizations to comply with the law and to advise that it is in the organizations' and the public's interest that organizations do not violate the law. Lawyers acting for organizations are often in a position to advise the executive officers of the organization, not only about the technicalities of the law, but also about the public relations and public policy concerns that motivated the government or regulator to enact the law. Moreover, lawyers for organizations, particularly in-house counsel, may guide organizations to act in ways that are legal, ethical, reputable, and consistent with the organization's responsibilities to its constituents and to the public.

Commentary

[1] A lawyer and client relationship presupposes that the client has the requisite mental ability to make decisions about their legal affairs and to give the lawyer instructions. A client's ability to make decisions, however, depends on such factors as their age, intelligence, experience, and mental and physical health, and on the advice, guidance, and support of others. Further, a client's ability to make decisions may change, for better or worse, over time.

[1.1] When a client is or comes to be under a disability that impairs their ability to make decisions, the impairment may be minor or it might prevent the client from having the legal capacity to give instructions or to enter into binding legal relationships. Recognizing these factors, the purpose of this rule is to direct a lawyer with a client under a disability to maintain, as far as reasonably possible, a normal lawyer and client relationship.

[2] [FLSC - not in use]

[3] A lawyer with a client under a disability should appreciate that if the disability of the client is such that the client no longer has the legal capacity to manage their legal affairs, the lawyer may need to take steps to have a lawfully authorized representative appointed, for example, a litigation guardian, or to obtain the assistance of the Office of the Public Guardian and Trustee or the Office of the Children's Lawyer to protect the interests of the client. In any event, the lawyer has an ethical obligation to ensure that the client's interests are not abandoned.

[4] [FLSC - not in use]

[5] When a lawyer takes protective action on behalf of a person or client lacking in capacity, the authority to disclose necessary confidential information may be implied in some circumstances. (See Commentary under rule 3.3-1 (Confidentiality) for a discussion of the relevant factors). If the court or other counsel becomes involved, the lawyer should inform them of the nature of the lawyer's relationship with the person lacking capacity.

Commentary

[1] The lawyer can avoid some of the problems anticipated by the rule by having a full and frank discussion with the physician or health professional, preferably in advance of the preparation of a medical-legal report, which discussion will serve to inform the physician or health professional of the lawyer's obligation respecting disclosure of medical-legal reports to the client.

Commentary

[1] A lawyer should advise the client of the options available to protect the client's interests and minimize the client's risks in a real estate transaction. The lawyer should be cognizant of when title insurance may be an appropriate option. Although title insurance is intended to protect the client against title risks, it is not a substitute for a lawyer's services in a real estate transaction.

[2] The lawyer should be knowledgeable about title insurance and discuss with the client the advantages, conditions, and limitations of the various options and coverages generally available to the client through title insurance. Before recommending a specific title insurance product, the lawyer should be knowledgeable about the product and take such training as may be necessary in order to acquire the knowledge.

Commentary

[1] The fiduciary relationship between lawyer and client requires full disclosure in all financial dealings between them and prohibits the acceptance of any hidden fees by the lawyer, including the lawyer's law firm, any employee or associate of the firm, or any related entity.

Commentary

[1] A lawyer cannot render effective professional service to the client unless there is full and unreserved communication between them. At the same time, the client must feel completely secure and entitled to proceed on the basis that, without any express request or stipulation on the client's part, matters disclosed to or discussed with the lawyer will be held in strict confidence.

[2] This rule must be distinguished from the evidentiary rule of lawyer and client privilege, which is also a constitutionally protected right, concerning oral or documentary communications passing between the client and the lawyer. The ethical rule is wider and applies without regard to the nature or source of the information or the fact that others may share the knowledge.

[3] A lawyer owes the duty of confidentiality to every client without exception and whether or not the client is a continuing or casual client. The duty survives the professional relationship and continues indefinitely after the lawyer has ceased to act for the client, whether or not differences have arisen between them.

[4] A lawyer also owes a duty of confidentiality to anyone seeking advice or assistance on a matter invoking a lawyer's professional knowledge, although the lawyer may not render an account or agree to represent that person. A solicitor and client relationship is often established without formality. A lawyer should be cautious in accepting confidential information on an informal or preliminary basis, since possession of the information may prevent the lawyer from subsequently acting for another party in the same or a related matter. (See Section 3.4 Conflicts.)

[5] Generally, unless the nature of the matter requires such disclosure, a lawyer should not disclose having been:

(a) retained by a person about a particular matter; or

(b) consulted by a person about a particular matter, whether or not the lawyer-client relationship has been established between them.

[6] A lawyer should take care to avoid disclosure to one client of confidential information concerning or received from another client and should decline employment that might require such disclosure.

[7] Sole practitioners who practise in association with other licensees in cost-sharing, space- sharing or other arrangements should be mindful of the risk of advertent or inadvertent disclosure of confidential information, even if the lawyers institute systems and procedures that are designed to insulate their respective practices. The issue may be heightened if a lawyer in the association represents a client on the other side of a dispute with the client of another licensee in the association. Apart from conflict of interest issues such a situation may raise, the risk of such disclosure may depend on the extent to which the licensees' practices are integrated, physically and administratively, in the association.

[8] A lawyer should avoid indiscreet conversations, even with the lawyer's spouse or family, about a client's affairs and should shun any gossip about such things even though the client is not named or otherwise identified. Similarly, a lawyer should not repeat any gossip or information about the client's business or affairs that is overheard or recounted to the lawyer. Apart altogether from ethical considerations or questions of good taste, indiscreet shop-talk between lawyers, if overheard by third parties able to identify the matter being discussed, could result in prejudice to the client. Moreover, the respect of the listener for lawyers and the legal profession will probably be lessened.

[8.1] Although the rule may not apply to facts that are public knowledge, nevertheless, the lawyer should guard against participating in or commenting on speculation concerning the client's affairs or business.

[9] In some situations, the authority of the client to disclose may be inferred. For example, some disclosure may be necessary in court proceedings, in a pleading or other court document. Also, it is implied that a lawyer may, unless the client directs otherwise, disclose the client's affairs to partners and associates in the law firm and, to the extent necessary, to administrative staff and to others whose services are used by the lawyer. But this implied authority to disclose places the lawyer under a duty to impress upon associates, employees, and students and other licensees engaged under contract with the lawyer or with the firm of the lawyer the importance of non-disclosure (both during their employment and afterwards) and requires the lawyer to take reasonable care to prevent their disclosing or using any information that the lawyer is bound to keep in confidence.

[10] The client's authority for the lawyer to disclose confidential information to the extent necessary to protect the client's interest may also be inferred in some situations where the lawyer is taking action on behalf of the person lacking capacity to protect the person until a legal representative can be appointed. In determining whether a lawyer may disclose such information, the lawyer should consider all circumstances, including the reasonableness of the lawyer's belief that the person lacks capacity, the potential harm that may come to the client if no action is taken, and any instructions the client may have given to the lawyer when capable of giving instructions about the authority to disclose information. Similar considerations apply to confidential information given to the lawyer by a person who lacks the capacity to become a client but nevertheless requires protection.

[11] A lawyer may have an obligation to disclose information under rules 5.5-2, 5.5-3 and 5.6-3 (Security of Court Facilities). If client information is involved in those situations, the lawyer should be guided by the provisions of this rule.

[11.1] The fiduciary relationship between a lawyer and a client forbids the lawyer or a third person from benefiting from the lawyer's use of a client's confidential information. If a lawyer engages in literary works, such as a memoir or autobiography, the lawyer is required to obtain the client's or former client's consent before disclosing confidential information.

Commentary

[1] Confidentiality and loyalty are fundamental to the relationship between a lawyer and a client because legal advice cannot be given and justice cannot be done unless clients have a large measure of freedom to discuss their affairs with their lawyers. However, in some very exceptional situations identified in this rule, disclosure without the client's permission might be warranted because the lawyer is satisfied that truly serious harm of the types identified is imminent and cannot otherwise be prevented. These situations will be extremely rare.

[2] The Supreme Court of Canada has considered the meaning of the words "serious bodily harm" in certain contexts, which may inform a lawyer in assessing whether disclosure of confidential information is warranted. In Smith v. Jones, [1999] 1 S.C.R. 455 at paragraph 83, the Court observed that serious psychological harm may constitute serious bodily harm if it substantially interferes with the health or well-being of the individual.

[3] In assessing whether disclosure of confidential information is justified to prevent death or serious bodily harm, a lawyer should consider a number of factors, including

(a) the likelihood that the potential injury will occur and its imminence;

(b) the apparent absence of any other feasible way to prevent the potential injury; and

(c) the circumstances under which the lawyer acquired the information of the client's intent or prospective course of action.

[4] How and when disclosure should be made under this rule will depend upon the circumstances. A lawyer who believes that disclosure may be warranted should seek legal advice. When practicable, a judicial order may be sought for disclosure.

[5] If confidential information is disclosed under rule 3.3-3, the lawyer should prepare a written note as soon as possible, which should include:

(a) the date and time of the communication in which the disclosure is made;

(b) the grounds in support of the lawyer's decision to communicate the information, including the harm intended to be prevented, the identity of the person who prompted communication of the information as well as the identity of the person or group of persons exposed to the harm; and

(c) the content of the communication, the method of communication used and the identity of the person to whom the communication was made.

[Amended - October 2014]

[5.1] A lawyer employed or retained to act for an organization, including a corporation, confronts a difficult problem about confidentiality when he or she becomes aware that the organization may commit a dishonest, fraudulent, criminal, or illegal act. This problem is sometimes described as the problem of whether the lawyer should "blow the whistle" on their employer or client. Although the rules make it clear that the lawyer shall not knowingly assist or encourage any dishonesty, fraud, crime, or illegal conduct (rule 3.2-7) and provide a rule for how a lawyer should respond to conduct by an organization that was, is or may be dishonest, fraudulent, criminal, or illegal (rule 3.2-8), it does not follow that the lawyer should disclose to the appropriate authorities an employer's or client's proposed misconduct. Rather, the general rule, as set out above, is that the lawyer shall hold the client's information in strict confidence, and this general rule is subject to only a few exceptions. Assuming the exceptions do not apply, there are, however, several steps that a lawyer should take when confronted with the difficult problem of proposed misconduct by an organization. The lawyer should recognize that their duties are owed to the organization and not to the officers, employees, or agents of the organization (rule 3.2-3)) and the lawyer should comply with rule 3.2-8, which sets out the steps the lawyer should take in response to proposed, past or continuing misconduct by the organization.

Commentary

[1] As a matter related to clients' interests in maintaining a relationship with counsel of choice and protecting client confidences, lawyers in different firms may need to disclose information to each other to detect and resolve conflicts of interest, such as when a lawyer is considering an association with another firm, two or more firms are considering a merger, or a lawyer is considering the purchase of a law practice.

[2] In these situations (see Rules 3.4-17 to 3.4-23 on Conflicts From Transfer Between Law Firms), rule 3.3-7 permits lawyers and law firms to disclose limited information. This type of disclosure would only be made once substantive discussions regarding the new relationship have occurred.

[3] This exchange of information between the firms needs to be done in a manner consistent with the transferring lawyer's and new firm's obligations to protect client confidentiality and privileged information and avoid any prejudice to the client. It ordinarily would include no more than the names of the persons and entities involved in a matter. Depending on the circumstances, it may include a brief summary of the general issues involved, and information about whether the representation has come to an end.

[4] The disclosure should be made to as few lawyers at the new law firm as possible, ideally to one lawyer of the new firm, such as a designated conflicts lawyer. The information should always be disclosed only to the extent reasonably necessary to detect and resolve conflicts of interest that might arise from the possible new relationship.

[5] As the disclosure is made on the basis that it is solely for the use of checking conflicts where lawyers are transferring between firms and for establishing screens, the disclosure should be coupled with an undertaking by the new law firm to the former law firm that it will:

(a) limit access to the disclosed information;

(b) not use the information for any purpose other than detecting and resolving conflicts; and

(c) return, destroy, or store in a secure and confidential manner the information provided once appropriate confidentiality screens are established.

[6] The client's consent to disclosure of such information may be specifically addressed in a retainer agreement between the lawyer and client. In some circumstances, however, because of the nature of the retainer, the transferring lawyer and the new law firm may be required to obtain the consent of clients to such disclosure or to the disclosure of any further information about the clients. This is especially the case where disclosure would compromise solicitor-client privilege or otherwise prejudice the client (e.g., the fact that a corporate client is seeking advice on a corporate takeover that has not been publicly announced; that a person has consulted a lawyer about the possibility of divorce before the person's intentions are known to the person's spouse; or that a person has consulted a lawyer about a criminal investigation that has not led to a public charge).

Commentary

[1] As defined in rule 1.1-1, a conflict of interest exists when there is a substantial risk that a lawyer's loyalty to or representation of a client would be materially and adversely affected by the lawyer's own interest or the lawyer's duties to another client, a former client, or a third person. Rule 3.4-1 protects the duties owed by lawyers to their clients and the lawyer-client relationship from impairment as a result of a conflicting duty or interest. A client's interests may be seriously prejudiced unless the lawyer's judgment and freedom of action on the client's behalf are as free as possible from conflicts of interest. 

[2] In addition to the duty of representation arising from a retainer, the law imposes other duties on the lawyer, particularly the duty of loyalty. The duty of confidentiality, the duty of candour and the duty of commitment to the client's cause are aspects of the duty of loyalty. This rule protects all of these duties from impairment by a conflicting duty or interest.

[3] A client may be unable to judge whether the lawyer's duties have actually been compromised. Even a well-intentioned lawyer may not realize that performance of his or her duties has been compromised. Accordingly, the rule addresses the risk of impairment rather than actual impairment. The expression "substantial risk" in the definition of "conflict of interest" describes the likelihood of the impairment, as opposed to its nature or severity. A "substantial risk" is one that is significant and plausible, even if it is not certain or even probable that it will occur. There must be more than a mere possibility that the impairment will occur. Except as otherwise provided in Rule 3.4-2, it is for the client and not the lawyer to decide whether to accept this risk.

Personal Interest Conflicts

[4] A lawyer’s own interests can impair client representation and loyalty.  This can be reasonably obvious, for example, where a lawyer is asked to advise the client in respect of a matter in which the lawyer, the lawyer’s partner or associate or a family member has a material direct or indirect financial interest.  But other situations may not be so obvious.  For example, the judgment of a lawyer who has a close personal relationship, sexual or otherwise, with a client who is in a family law dispute is likely to be compromised.  The relationship may obscure whether certain information was acquired in the course of the lawyer and client relationship and may jeopardize the client’s right to have all information concerning his or her affairs held in strict confidence.  The relationship may in some circumstances permit exploitation of the client by his or her lawyer.   

[5] Lawyers should carefully consider their relationships with their clients and the subject matter of the retainer in order to determine whether a conflicting personal interest exists.  If the lawyer is a member of a firm and concludes that a conflicting personal interest exists, the conflict is not imputed to the lawyer’s firm, but would be cured if another lawyer in the firm who is not involved in such a relationship with the client handled the client’s work without the involvement of the conflicted lawyer.  

Current Client Conflicts  

[6] Duties owed to another current client can also impair client representation and loyalty.  Representing opposing parties in a dispute provides a particularly stark example of a current client conflict.  Conflicts may also arise in a joint retainer where the jointly represented clients’ interests diverge.  Acting for more than one client in separate but related matters may risk impairment because of the nature of the retainers.  The duty of confidentiality owed to one client may be inconsistent with the duty of candour owed to another client depending on whether information obtained by the lawyer during either retainer would be relevant to both retainers.  These are examples of situations where conflicts of interest involving other current clients may arise.  

[7] A bright line rule has been developed by the courts to protect the representation of and loyalty to current clients.  c.f. Canadian National Railway Co. v. McKercher LLP, [2013] 2 S.C.R. 649. The bright line rule holds that a lawyer cannot act directly adverse to the immediate legal interests of a current client, without the clients’ consent.  The bright line rule applies even if the work done for the two clients is completely unrelated.  The scope of the bright line rule is limited.  It provides that a lawyer cannot act directly adverse to the immediate legal interests of a current client. Accordingly, the main area of application of the bright line rule is in civil and criminal proceedings. Exceptionally, the bright line rule does not apply in circumstances where it is unreasonable for a client to expect that the client’s law firm will not act against the client in unrelated matters.   

[8] The bright line recognizes that the lawyer-client relationship may be irreparably damaged where the lawyer’s representation of one client is directly adverse to another client’s immediate legal interests. One client may legitimately fear that the lawyer will not pursue the representation out of deference to the other client, and an existing client may legitimately feel betrayed by the lawyer’s representation of a client with adverse legal interests.  This type of conflict may also arise outside a law partnership, in situations where sole practitioners, who are in space-sharing associations and who otherwise have separate practices, hold themselves out as a law firm and lawyers in the association represent opposite parties to a dispute.  

[9] A lawyer should understand that there may be a conflict of interest arising from the duties owed to another current client even if the bright line rule does not apply.  In matters involving another current client, lawyers should take care to consider not only whether the bright line rule applies but whether there is a substantial risk of impairment.  In either case, there is a conflict of interest.  

Former Client Conflicts  

[10] Duties owed to a former client, as reflected in Rule 3.4-10, can impair client representation and loyalty.  As the duty of confidentiality continues after the retainer is completed, the duty of confidentiality owed to a former client may conflict with the duty of candour owed to a current client if information from the former matter would be relevant to the current matter.  Lawyers also have a duty not to act against a former client in the same or a related matter even where the former client’s confidential information is not at risk.  In order to determine the existence of a conflict of interest, a lawyer should consider whether the representation of the current client in a matter includes acting against a former client.  

Conflicts arising from Duties to Other Persons  

[11] Duties owed to other persons can impair client representation and loyalty.  For example, a lawyer may act as a director of a corporation as well as a trustee.  If the lawyer acts against such a corporation or trust, there may be a conflict of interest.  But even acting for such a corporation or trust may affect the lawyer’s independent judgment and fiduciary obligations in either or both roles, make it difficult if not impossible to distinguish between legal advice from business and practical advice, or jeopardize the protection of lawyer and client privilege.  Lawyers should carefully consider the propriety, and the wisdom of wearing “more than one hat” at the same time.  

Other Issues To Consider  

[12] A lawyer should examine whether a conflict of interest exists not only from the outset but throughout the duration of a retainer because new circumstances or information may establish or reveal a conflict of interest. For example, the addition of new parties in litigation or in a transaction can give rise to new conflicts of interest that must be addressed.  

[13] Addressing conflicts may require that other rules be considered, for example  

(a)  the lawyer’s duty of commitment to the client’s cause, reflected in Rule 3.7-1, prevents the lawyer from withdrawing from representation of a current client, especially summarily and unexpectedly, in order to circumvent the conflict of interest rules;  

(b) the lawyer’s duty of candour, reflected in Rule 3.2-2, requires a lawyer or law firm to advise an existing client of all matters relevant to the retainer.  Even where a lawyer concludes that there is no conflict of interest in acting against a current client, the duty of candour may require that the client be advised of the adverse retainer in order to determine whether to continue the retainer;  

(c) the lawyer’s duty of confidentiality, reflected in Rule 3.3-1 and owed to current and former clients, may limit the lawyer’s ability to obtain client consent as permitted by Rule 3.4-2 because the lawyer may not be able to disclose the information required for proper consent.  Where there is a conflict of interest and consent cannot be obtained for this reason, the lawyer must not act; and  

(d) rule 3.4-2 permits a lawyer to act in a conflict in certain circumstances with consent.  It is the client, not the lawyer, who is entitled to decide whether to accept risk of impairment of client representation and loyalty.  However, Rule 3.4-2 provides that client consent does not permit a lawyer to act where there would be impairment rather than merely the risk of impairment.  

[14] These rules set out ethical standards to which all members of the profession must adhere.  The courts have a separate supervisory role over court proceedings. In that role, the courts apply fiduciary and other principles developed by the courts to govern lawyers’ relationships with their clients, to ensure the proper administration of justice. A breach of the rules on conflicts of interest may lead to sanction by the Law Society even where a court dealing with the case may decline to order disqualification as a remedy.

Commentary

Disclosure and consent  

[1] Disclosure is an essential requirement to obtaining a client’s consent and arises from the duty of candour owed to the client. Where it is not possible to provide the client with adequate disclosure because of the confidentiality of the information of another client, the lawyer must decline to act.  

[2] Disclosure means full and fair disclosure of all information relevant to a person’s decision in sufficient time for the person to make a genuine and independent decision, and the taking of reasonable steps to ensure understanding of the matters disclosed.  The lawyer therefore should inform the client of the relevant circumstances and the reasonably foreseeable ways that the conflict of interest could adversely affect the client’s interests. This would include the lawyer’s relations to the parties and any interest in or connection with the matter.  

[2A] While this rule does not require that a lawyer advise a client to obtain independent legal advice about the conflict of interest, in some cases the lawyer should recommend such advice.  This is to ensure that the client’s consent is informed, genuine and uncoerced, especially if the client is vulnerable and not sophisticated.  

[3] Following the required disclosure, the client can decide whether to give consent. As important as it is to the client that the lawyer’s judgment and freedom of action on the client’s behalf not be subject to other interests, duties or obligations, in practice this factor may not always be decisive. Instead, it may be only one of several factors that the client will weigh when deciding whether or not to give the consent referred to in the rule. Other factors might include, for example, the availability of another lawyer of comparable expertise and experience, the stage that the matter or proceeding has reached, the extra cost, delay and inconvenience involved in engaging another lawyer, and the latter’s unfamiliarity with the client and the client’s affairs.  

Consent in advance   

[4] A lawyer may be able to request that a client consent in advance to conflicts that might arise in the future. As the effectiveness of such consent is generally determined by the extent to which the client reasonably understands the material risks that the consent entails, the more comprehensive the explanation of the types of future representations that might arise and the actual and reasonably foreseeable adverse consequences of those representations, the greater the likelihood that the client will have the requisite understanding. A general, open-ended consent will ordinarily be ineffective because it is not reasonably likely that the client will have understood the material risks involved. If the client is an experienced user of the legal services involved and is reasonably informed regarding the risk that a conflict may arise, such consent is more likely to be effective, particularly if, for example, the client is independently represented by other counsel in giving consent and the consent is limited to future conflicts unrelated to the subject of the representation.  

[5] While not a pre-requisite to advance consent, in some circumstances it may be advisable to recommend that the client obtain independent legal advice before deciding whether to provide consent. Advance consent must be recorded, for example in a retainer letter.  

Consent and the Bright Line Rule  

[6] The bright line rule, referred to in the Commentary to Rule 3.4-1, does not apply in circumstances where it is unreasonable for a client to expect that its law firm will not act against it in unrelated matters.  No issue of consent arises in such circumstances absent a substantial risk of material and adverse effect on the lawyer’s loyalty to or representation of a client.  Where such a risk exists, consent is required even though the bright line rule does not apply.  

Commentary

[1] A lawyer representing a client who is a party in a dispute with another party or parties must competently and diligently develop and argue the position of the client. In a dispute, the parties' immediate legal interests are clearly adverse. If the lawyer were permitted to act for opposing parties in such circumstances even with consent, the lawyer's advice, judgment and loyalty to one client would be materially and adversely affected by the same duties to the other client or clients. In short, the lawyer would find it impossible to act without offending the rules in Section 3.4.

Commentary

[1] Although this rule does not require that a lawyer advise clients to obtain independent legal advice before the lawyer may accept a joint retainer, in some cases, the lawyer should recommend such advice to ensure that the clients' consent to the joint retainer is informed, genuine and uncoerced. This is especially so when one of the clients is less sophisticated or more vulnerable than the other.

[2] A lawyer who receives instructions from spouses or partners as defined in the Substitute Decisions Act, 1992, S.O. 1992, c. 30 to prepare one or more wills for them based on their shared understanding of what is to be in each will should treat the matter as a joint retainer and comply with this rule. Further, at the outset of this joint retainer, the lawyer should advise the spouses or partners that, if subsequently only one of them were to communicate new instructions, such as instructions to change or revoke a will

(a) the subsequent communication would be treated as a request for a new retainer and not as part of the joint retainer;

(b) in accordance with rules 3.3-1 to 3.3-6 (Confidentiality), the lawyer would be obliged to hold the subsequent communication in strict confidence and not disclose it to the other spouse or partner; and

(c) the lawyer would have a duty to decline the new retainer, unless:

(i) the spouses or partners had annulled their marriage, divorced, permanently ended their conjugal relationship or permanently ended their close personal relationship, as the case may be;

(ii) the other spouse or partner had died; or

(iii) the other spouse or partner was informed of the subsequent communication and agreed to the lawyer acting on the new instructions.

[3] After advising the spouses or partners in the manner described above, the lawyer should obtain their consent to act in accordance with rule 3.4-7.

[3.1] Joint retainers should be distinguished from separate retainers in which a law firm is retained to assist two or more clients competing at the same time for the same opportunity such as, for example, by competing bids in a corporate acquisition or competing applications for a single licence. Each client would be represented by different lawyers in the firm. Since competing retainers of this kind are not joint retainers, information received can be treated as confidential and not disclosed to the client in the competing retainer. However, competing retainers to pursue the same opportunity require express consent pursuant to rule 3.4-2 because a conflict of interest will exist and the retainers will be related. With consent, confidentiality screens as described in rules 3.4-17 to 3.4-26 would be permitted between competing retainers to pursue the same opportunity. But confidentiality screens are not permitted in a joint retainer because rule 3.4-5(b) does not permit treating information received in connection with the joint retainer as confidential so far as any of the joint clients are concerned.

Commentary

[1] Consent in writing, or a record of the consent in a separate written communication to each client is required. Even if all the parties concerned consent, a lawyer should avoid acting for more than one client when it is likely that a contentious issue will arise between them or their interests, rights or obligations will diverge as the matter progresses.

Commentary

[1] This rule does not prevent a lawyer from arbitrating or settling, or attempting to arbitrate or settle a dispute between two or more clients or former clients who are not under any legal disability and who wish to submit the dispute to the lawyer.

[2] If, after the clients have consented to a joint retainer, an issue contentious between them or some of them arises, the lawyer is not necessarily precluded from advising them on non-contentious matters.

Commentary

[1] Unlike rules 3.4-1 through 3.4-9, which deal with current client conflicts, rules 3.4.10 and 3.4-11 address conflicts where the lawyer acts against a former client. Rule 3.4-10 guards against the misuse of confidential information from a previous retainer and ensures that a lawyer does not attack the legal work done during a previous retainer, or undermine the client's position on a matter that was central to a previous retainer. It is not improper for a lawyer to act against a former client in a fresh and independent matter wholly unrelated to any work the lawyer has previously done for that client if previously obtained confidential information is irrelevant to that matter.

Commentary

[1] The guidelines at the end of the Commentary to rule 3.4-20 regarding lawyer transfers between firms provide valuable guidance for the protection of confidential information in the rare cases in which, having regard to all of the relevant circumstances, it is appropriate for another lawyer in the lawyer's firm to act against the former client.

Commentary

[1] Lawyers practising in an affiliation are required to control the practice through which they deliver legal services to the public. They are also required to address conflicts of interest in respect of a proposed retainer by a client as if the lawyer's practice and the practice of the affiliated entity were one where the lawyers accept a retainer to provide legal services to that client jointly with non-legal services of the affiliated entity. The affiliation is subject to the same conflict of interest rules as apply to lawyers and law firms. This obligation may extend to inquiries of offices of affiliated entities outside of Ontario where those offices are treated economically as part of a single affiliated entity.

[2] In reference to paragraph (a) of rule 3.4-11.1, see also subsection 3(2) of By-Law 7.1 (Operational Obligations and Responsibilities).

Commentary

[1] What is material is to be determined objectively. Material information would be facts that would be perceived objectively as relevant by any reasonable lender or borrower. An example is a price escalation or "flip", where a property is re-transferred or re-sold on the same day or within a short time period for a significantly higher price. The duty to disclose arises even if the lender or the borrower does not ask for the specific information.

Commentary

[1] Rules 3.4-13 and 3.4-16 are intended to simplify the advice and consent process between a lawyer and institutional lender clients. Such clients are generally sophisticated. Their acknowledgement of the terms of and consent to the joint retainer is usually confirmed in the documentation of the transaction (e.g., mortgage loan instructions) and the consent is generally acknowledged by such clients when the lawyer is requested to act.

[2] Rule 3.4-16 applies to all loans when a lawyer is acting jointly for both the lending client and another client regardless of the purpose of the loan, including, without restriction, mortgage loans, business loans and personal loans. It also applies where there is a guarantee of such a loan.

Commentary

[1] Short-term legal services, such as duty counsel programs, are usually offered in circumstances in which it may be difficult to systematically screen for conflicts of interest in a timely way, despite the best efforts and existing practices and procedures of the short-term provider, the lawyer and the lawyer's firm. Performing a full conflicts screening in circumstances in which short-term legal services are being offered can be very challenging given the timelines, volume and logistics of the setting in which the services are provided. The time required to screen for conflicts may mean that qualifying individuals for whom these brief legal services are available are denied access to legal assistance.

[2] The limited nature of short-term legal services significantly reduces the risk of conflicts of interest. Accordingly, the lawyer is disqualified from acting for a client receiving short-term legal services only if the lawyer has actual knowledge of a conflict of interest in the same or a related matter. For example, a conflict of interest of which the lawyer has no actual knowledge but which is imputed to the lawyer because of the lawyer's membership in or association or employment with a firm would not preclude the lawyer from representing the client seeking short-term legal services.

[3] In the provision of short-term legal services, the lawyer's knowledge about conflicts is based on the lawyer's reasonable recollection and information provided by the client in the ordinary course of the consulting with the short-term provider regarding the short-term legal services.

[4] The disqualification of a lawyer participating in a short-term legal services program does not create a conflict for the other lawyers participating in the program, as the conflict is not imputed to them.

[5] Confidential information obtained by a lawyer representing a short-term client, will not be imputed to the lawyers, paralegals and others at the lawyer's firm. As such, these people may continue to act for another client adverse in interest to the short-term client and may act in future for another client adverse in interest to the short-term client.

[6] Information obtained by a lawyer representing short-term clients may result in a conflict for the lawyer with an existing client that could require the lawyer to cease representation of that existing client. This risk can be minimized by the establishment of a system to search for conflicts of interest of the lawyer’s law firm prior to representing short-term clients,

[7] Appropriate screening measures must be in place to prevent disclosure of confidential information relating to the short-term client to other persons at the lawyer's firm. Rule 3.4-16.4 extends, with necessary modifications, the rules and guidelines about conflicts arising from a lawyer transfer between law firms (rules 3.4-17 to 3.4-23) to the situation of a law firm acting against a current client of the firm in providing short-term legal services. Measures that the lawyer providing the short-term legal services should take to ensure the confidentiality the client's information include

(a) having no involvement in the representation of or any discussions with others in the firm about another client whose interests conflict with those of the pro bono client;

(b) identifying relevant files, if any, of the pro bono client and physically segregating access to them to those working on the file or who require access for specifically identified or approved reasons; and

(c) ensuring that the firm has distributed a written policy to all licensees, non-licensee partners and associates and support staff, explaining the screening measures that are in place.

[8] Rule 3.4-16.5 precludes a lawyer from obtaining a waiver in respect of conflicts of interest that arise in providing short-term pro bono legal services.

[9] The provisions of Rules 16.3 and 16.4 are intended to permit the provision of short-term legal services by a lawyer without the client being considered to be a client of the lawyer's firm for conflicts and other purposes. However, it is open to the lawyer and the short-term client to agree that the resources of the lawyer's firm, including other lawyers, may be accessed for the benefit of the client, in which case the provisions of Rule 16.3 and 16.4 do not apply, the lawyer would be required to clear conflicts and the short-term client would be considered a client of the lawyer's firm.

Commentary

[1] the purpose of the rule is to deal with actual knowledge. Imputed knowledge does not give rise to disqualification. As stated by the Supreme Court of Canada in Macdonald Estate v. Martin , [1990] 3 SCR 1235, with respect to the partners or associates of a lawyer who has relevant confidential information, the concept of imputed knowledge is unrealistic in the area of the mega-firm. Notwithstanding the foregoing, the inference to be drawn is that lawyers working together in the same firm will share confidences on the matters on which they are working, such that actual knowledge may be presumed. That presumption can be rebutted by clear and convincing evidence that shows that all reasonable measures, as discussed in rule 3.4-20, have been taken to ensure that no disclosure will occur by the transferring lawyer to the member or members of the firm who are engaged against a former client.

[2] The duties imposed by this rule concerning confidential information should be distinguished from the general ethical duty to hold in strict confidence all information concerning the business and affairs of the client acquired in the course of the professional relationship, which duty applies without regard to the nature or source of the information or to the fact that others may share the knowledge.

[3] Law firms with multiple offices - This rule treats as one "law firm" such entities as the various legal services units of a government, a corporation with separate regional legal departments and an interjurisdictional law firm.

Commentary

[1] Government employees and in-house counsel - The definition of "law firm" includes one or more lawyers practising in a government, a Crown corporation, any other public body or a corporation. Thus, the rule applies to lawyers transferring to or from government service and into or out of an in-house counsel position, but does not extend to purely internal transfers in which, after transfer, the employer remains the same.

Commentary

[1] It is not possible to offer a set of "reasonable measures" that will be appropriate or adequate in every case. Instead, the new law firm that seeks to implement reasonable measures must exercise professional judgment in determining what steps must be taken "to ensure that no disclosure will occur to any member of the new law firm of the former client's confidential information". Such measures may include timely and properly constructed confidentiality screens.

[2] For example, the various legal services units of a government, a corporation with separate regional legal departments, an interjurisdictional law firm, or a legal aid program may be able to demonstrate that, because of its institutional structure, reporting relationships, function, nature of work, and geography, relatively fewer "measures" are necessary to ensure the non-disclosure of client confidences. If it can be shown that, because of factors such as the above, lawyers in separate units, offices or department do not "work together" with other lawyer in other units, offices or departments, this will be taken into account in the determination of what screening measures are "reasonable".

[3] The guidelines that follow are intended as a checklist of relevant factors to be considered. Adoption of only some of the guidelines may be adequate in some cases, while adoption of them all may not be sufficient in others.

Guidelines: How to Screen/Measures to be taken

1. The screened lawyer should have no involvement in the new law firm's representation of its client in the matter.

2. The screened lawyer should not discuss the current matter or any information relating to the representation of the former client (the two may be identical) with anyone else in the new law firm.

3. No member of the new law firm should discuss the current matter or the previous representation with the screened lawyer.

4. The firm should take steps to preclude the screened lawyer from having access to any part of the file.

5. The new law firm should document the measures taken to screen the transferring lawyer, the time when these measures were put in place (the sooner the better), and should advise all affected lawyers and support staff of the measures taken.

6. These Guidelines apply with necessary modifications to situations in which non-lawyer staff employees leave one law firm to work for another and a determination is made, before hiring the individual, on whether any conflicts of interest will be created and whether the potential new hire actually possesses relevant confidential information.

How to Determine If a Conflict Exists Before Hiring a Potential Transferee

[4] When a law firm considers hiring a lawyer from another law firm, the transferring lawyer and the new law firm need to determine, before the transfer, whether any conflicts of interest will be created. Conflicts can arise with respect to clients of the law firm that the transferring lawyer is leaving and with respect to clients of a firm in which the transferring lawyer worked at some earlier time.

[5] After completing the interview process and before hiring the transferring lawyer, the new law firm should determine whether any conflicts exist. In determining whether the transferring lawyer actually possesses relevant confidential information, both the transferring lawyer and the new law firm must be very careful, during any interview of a potential transferring lawyer, or other recruitment process, to ensure that they do not disclose client confidences. See Rule 3.3-7 which provides that a lawyer may disclose confidential information to the extent the lawyer reasonably believes necessary to detect and resolve conflicts of interest where lawyers transfer between firms.

[6] A lawyer's duty to the lawyer's firm may also govern a lawyer's conduct when exploring an association with another firm and is beyond the scope of these Rules.

Commentary

[1] This rule is intended to regulate lawyers who transfer between law firms. It also imposes a general duty on lawyers and law firms to exercise due diligence in the supervision of non-lawyer staff to ensure that they comply with the rule and with the duty not to disclose confidences of clients of the lawyer's firm and confidences of clients of other law firms in which the person has worked.

[2] Certain non-lawyer staff in a law firm routinely have full access to and work extensively on client files. As such, they may possess confidential information about the client. If these staff move from one law firm to another and the new firm acts for a client opposed in interest to the client on whose files the staff worked, unless measures are taken to screen the staff, it is reasonable to conclude that confidential information may be shared. It is the responsibility of the transferring lawyer and the members of the new law firm to ensure that staff who may have confidential information that if disclosed, may prejudice the interest of a client of the former firm, have no involvement with and no access to information relating to the relevant client of the new firm.

Commentary

[1] Transactions between a client and

(a) a related person to the lawyer;

(b) a trust or estate for which a lawyer is a beneficiary, or

(c) a trust or estate for which the lawyer acts as both trustee and lawyer

will ordinarily be treated as if the lawyer is a party to the transaction. However, if such a transaction is genuinely independent of the lawyer and does not involve the lawyer, the transaction would be outside the scope of this rule. Factors such as the proportion of the lawyer's interest in the trust and the relationship between the lawyer and the trustee may be considered.

[2] A lawyer who acts as a trustee for a trust or estate should take care to comply with the strict trust obligations that apply in respect of any dealings with the trust or estate. These trust obligations are in addition to the obligations imposed by these rules.

[New - May 2016] 

Commentary

[1] The relationship between lawyer and client is a fiduciary one. The lawyer has a duty to act in good faith. A lawyer should be able to demonstrate that the transaction with the client is fair and reasonable to the client.

[2] In some circumstances, a lawyer may be retained to provide legal services for a transaction in which the lawyer and a client participate. The lawyer should not uncritically accept a client's decision to have the lawyer act. It should be borne in mind that, if the lawyer accepts the retainer, the lawyer's first duty will be to the client. If the lawyer has any misgivings about being able to place the client's interests first, the retainer should be declined. This is because the lawyer cannot act in a transaction with a client where there is a substantial risk that the lawyer's loyalty to or representation of the client would be materially and adversely affected by the lawyer's own interest, unless the client consents and the lawyer reasonably believes that he or she is able to act for the client without having a material adverse effect on loyalty or on the representation.

[3] If the lawyer does not choose to disclose the conflicting interest or cannot do so without breaching confidence, the lawyer must decline the retainer.

[4] Generally, in disciplinary proceedings under Rules 3.4-29 to 3.4-36, the burden will rest upon the lawyer to show good faith, that adequate disclosure was made in the matter, that independent legal advice was received by the client, where required, and that the client's consent was obtained.

[5] Whether a person is considered a client within this rule when lending money to a lawyer on that person's own account or investing money in a security in which the lawyer has an interest is determined having regard to all circumstances. If the circumstances are such that the lender or investor might reasonably feel entitled to look to the lawyer for guidance and advice about the loan or investment, the lawyer is bound by the same fiduciary obligation that attaches to a lawyer in dealings with a client.

Documenting Independent Legal Advice

[6] A lawyer retained to give independent legal advice relating to a transaction should document the independent legal advice by:

(a) providing the client with a written certificate that the client has received independent legal advice;

(b) obtaining the client's signature on a copy of the certificate of independent legal advice; and

(c) sending the signed copy of the lawyer with whom the client proposes to transact business.

Documenting a Client's Decision to Decline Independent Legal Advice or Independent Legal Representation  

[7] If the client declines the recommendation to obtain independent legal advice or independent legal representation, the lawyer should obtain the client's signature on a document indicating that the client has declined the advice or representation.

[8] If the client is vulnerable and declines independent legal advice or independent legal representation, the lawyer should not enter into the transaction. Some signs that the client may be vulnerable include cognitive decline, disabilities such as impaired vision and hearing, financial insecurity, and major changes in life circumstances that may make the client more susceptible to being unduly influenced.

Borrowing by Related Entities  

[9]  Rule 3.4-29(b)(iv) addresses situations where a conflicting interest may not be immediately apparent to a potential lender. As such, the lawyer is required to make disclosure and require that the client from whom the entity in which the lawyer or the lawyer's spouse has a direct or indirect substantial interest in borrowing has independent legal representation.

Commentary

ACCEPTABLE MORTGAGE OR LOAN TRANSACTIONS

[1] A lawyer may engage in the following mortgage or loan transactions in connection with the practice of law

(a) a lawyer may invest in mortgages or loans personally or on behalf of a related person or a combination thereof;

(b) a lawyer may deal in mortgages or loans as an executor, administrator, committee, trustee of a testamentary or inter vivos trust established for purposes other than mortgage or loan investment or under a power of attorney given for purposes other than exclusively for mortgage or loan investment; and

(c) a lawyer may collect, on behalf of clients, mortgage or loan payments that are made payable in the name of the lawyer under a written direction to that effect given by the client to the mortgagor or borrower provided that such payments are deposited into the lawyer's trust account.

[2] A lawyer may introduce a borrower (whether or not a client) to a lender (whether or not a client) and the lawyer may then act for either, and when rule 3.4-14 applies, the lawyer may act for both.

Commentary

[1]  The remuneration paid to a lawyer by a client for the legal work undertaken by the lawyer for the client does not give rise to a conflicting interest.

Commentary

[1] The duties concerning safekeeping, preserving, and accounting for clients' monies and other property are set out in the by-laws made under the Law Society Act.

[2] These duties are closely related to those regarding confidential information. A lawyer is responsible for maintaining the safety and confidentiality of the files of the client in the possession of the lawyer and should take all reasonable steps to ensure the privacy and safekeeping of a client's confidential information. The lawyer should keep the client's papers and other property out of sight as well as out of reach of those not entitled to see them and should, subject to any rights of lien, promptly return them to the client upon request or at the conclusion of the lawyer's retainer.

[3] [FLSC - not in use]

[4] If the lawyer withdraws from representing a client, the lawyer is required to comply with the rules in Section 3.7 (Withdrawal from Representation).

Commentary

[1] The lawyer should be alert to the duty to claim on behalf of a client any privilege in respect of property seized or attempted to be seized by an external authority or in respect of third party claims made against the property. In this regard, the lawyer should be familiar with the nature of the client's common law privilege and with relevant constitutional and statutory provisions such as those found in the Income Tax Act (Canada) and the Criminal Code.

[2], [3] and [4] [FLSC - not in use]

[Amended - October 2014]

Commentary

[1] What is a fair and reasonable fee will depend upon such factors as

(a) the time and effort required and spent,

(b) the difficulty of the matter and the importance of the matter to the client,

(c) whether special skill or service has been required and provided,

(c.1) the amount involved or the value of the subject-matter,

(d) the results obtained,

(e) fees authorized by statute or regulation,

(f) special circumstances, such as the loss of other retainers, postponement of payment, uncertainty of reward, or urgency,

(g) the likelihood, if made known to the client, that acceptance of the retainer will result in the lawyer's inability to accept other employment,

(h) any relevant agreement between the lawyer and the client, 

(i) the experience and ability of the lawyer,

(j) any estimate or range of fees given by the lawyer, and

(k) the client's prior consent to the fee.

[2] The fiduciary relationship between lawyer and client requires full disclosure in all financial dealings between them and prohibits the acceptance by the lawyer of any hidden fees. No fee, reward, costs, commission, interest, rebate, agency or forwarding allowance, or other compensation related to professional employment may be taken by the lawyer from anyone other than the client without full disclosure to and the consent of the client or, where the lawyer's fees are being paid by someone other than the client, such as a legal aid agency, a borrower, or a personal representative, without the consent of such agency or other person.

[3] A lawyer should provide to the client in writing, before or within a reasonable time after commencing a representation, as much information regarding fees and disbursements, and interest as is reasonable and practical in the circumstances, including the basis on which fees will be determined.

[4] A lawyer should be ready to explain the basis of the fees and disbursements charged to the client. This is particularly important concerning fee charges or disbursements that the client might not reasonably be expected to anticipate. When something unusual or unforeseen occurs that may substantially affect the amount of a fee or disbursement, the lawyer should give to the client an immediate explanation. A lawyer should confirm with the client in writing the substance of all fee discussions that occur as a matter progresses, and a lawyer may revise an initial estimate of fees and disbursements.

[4.1] A lawyer should inform a client about their rights to have an account assessed under the Solicitors Act.

Commentary

[1] A contingency fee under the Solicitors Act is one in which any part of the lawyer’s compensation is dependent on the successful disposition or completion of the matter for which the lawyer is retained. A contingency fee agreement is a retainer agreement under which payment, including a bonus or premium, depends on a successful disposition or completion of the matter.

[1.1] The Solicitors Act and its contingency fee agreements regulation, together with the standard form Contingency Fee Agreement, the lawyer Rules of Professional Conduct and the consumer guide titled “Contingency fees: What you need to know,” all work in concert to enable the client disclosure requirements in Rule 3.6-2.1. The standard form Contingency Fee Agreement and the consumer guide are both available on the Law Society’s website.

[New - October 2002, Amended October 2004, October 2014, July 2021]

[2] [FLSC - not in use]

[3] The client disclosure requirements of this rule are intended to ensure that clients understand contingency fee arrangements, that legal fees are transparent, fair, and reasonable and that potential clients can compare fees when considering whether to retain a lawyer.

[4] When a lawyer enters into a contingency fee agreement and provides advice about settlement, the lawyer should provide the client with a written estimate of the approximate net amount the client is to receive from the settlement. The estimate should include sufficient information for the client to make an informed decision and include a breakdown of the lawyer’s fees, disbursements and any other charges to be deducted from the amount the client will receive.

[5] The requirement in Rule 3.6-2.1(2)(b)(iii) that the lawyer explain the reasonableness of the fee is intended to ensure that contingency fees charged are transparent and reasonable. The Ontario Court of Appeal has outlined the test for reasonableness in Raphael Partners v. Lam (2002), 61 O.R. (3d) 417, paragraph 50, stating that the factors to consider are:

(a) the time expended by the lawyer;

(b) the legal complexity of the matter at issue;

(c) the results achieved; and

(d) the risk assumed by the lawyer, including the risk of non-payment where there is a real risk of an adverse finding on liability in the client’s case.

The required statement should address each of these factors as they apply to the matter

[New - July 2021]

Commentary

[1] A lawyer who refers clients to other lawyers or paralegals, and a lawyer who receives referrals from other lawyers or paralegals each have fiduciary duties to the referred clients. Referral of a client must be in the client’s best interests.  

[2] The decision about who to retain is that of the client. The requirements in this rule are intended to ensure that the client has all of the relevant information to make this decision, including information about fees.    

[3] In the normal course, a lawyer who is referring a client should recommend more than one lawyer or paralegal to the client. There may be circumstances however in which there is only one suitable referral, for reasons such as expertise or geographic location, and this must be noted in the referral agreement.

Commentary

[1] This rule prohibits lawyers from entering into arrangements to compensate or reward non- lawyers for the referral of clients. However, this rule does not prohibit a lawyer from:

(a) making an arrangement respecting the purchase and sale of a law practice when the consideration payable includes a percentage of revenues generated from the practice sold;

(b) entering into a lease under which a landlord directly or indirectly shares in the fees or revenues generated by the law practice;

(c) paying an employee for services, other than for referring clients, based on the revenue of the lawyer's firm or practice.

(d) [FLSC - not in use]

Commentary

[1] This rule is intended to ensure that lawyers do not avoid or evade Rules 3.6-5 to 3.6-7. 

[2] Where a lawyer does anything that has the effect of obtaining or giving financial or other reward for the referral of legal work, this rule is breached unless the lawyer may reasonably be considered to have done so primarily for bona fide purposes other than for obtaining or giving such a reward.

[3] Examples of breaches of this rule could include entering into transactions at non-market prices between the licensee who makes a referral and the licensee who receives the referral. Specific examples could include non-market leases or cost-sharing arrangements.  Similarly, this rule could be breached where a licensee enters into a counsel, consulting or other relationship with a licensee who has received a referral for consideration that does not fairly reflect the work done as such.

Commentary

[1] An affiliation is different from a multi-discipline practice established in accordance with the by-laws under the Law Society Act, an interprovincial law partnership or a partnership between Ontario lawyers and foreign lawyers. An affiliation is subject to rule 3.6-7. In particular, an affiliated entity is not permitted to share in the lawyer's revenues, cash flows or profits, either directly or indirectly through excessive inter-firm charges, for example, by charging inter-firm expenses above their fair market value.

Commentary

[1] The rule is not intended to be an exhaustive statement of the considerations that apply to payment of a lawyer's account from trust. The handling of trust money is generally governed by the by-laws of the Law Society.

[2] Refusing to reimburse any portion of advance fees for work that has not been carried out when the contract of professional services with the client has terminated is a breach of the obligation to act with integrity.

Commentary

[1] Although the client has the right to terminate the lawyer-client relationship at will, the lawyer does not enjoy the same freedom of action. Having undertaken the representation of a client, the lawyer should complete the task as ably as possible unless there is justifiable cause for terminating the relationship.

[2] An essential element of reasonable notice is notification to the client, unless the client cannot be located after reasonable efforts. No hard and fast rules can be laid down about what will constitute reasonable notice before withdrawal and how quickly a lawyer may cease acting after notification will depend on all relevant circumstances. Where the matter is covered by statutory provisions or rules of court, these will govern. In other situations, the governing principle is that the lawyer should protect the client's interests to the best of the lawyer's ability and should not desert the client at a critical stage of a matter or at a time when withdrawal would put the client in a position of disadvantage or peril.

[3] Every effort should be made to ensure that withdrawal occurs at an appropriate time in the proceedings in keeping with the lawyer's obligations. The court, opposing parties and others directly affected should also be notified of the withdrawal.

[4] Deleted

Commentary

[1] A lawyer may have a justifiable cause for withdrawal in circumstances indicating a loss of confidence, for example, if a lawyer is deceived by their client, the client refuses to accept and act upon the lawyer's advice on a significant point, a client is persistently unreasonable or uncooperative in a material respect, there is a material breakdown in communications, or the lawyer is facing difficulty in obtaining adequate instructions from the client. However, the lawyer should not use the threat of withdrawal as a device to force a hasty decision by the client on a difficult question.

Commentary

[1] A lawyer who has withdrawn because of conflict with the client should not indicate in the notice addressed to the court or Crown counsel the cause of the conflict or make reference to any matter that would violate the privilege that exists between lawyer and client. The notice should merely state that the lawyer is no longer acting and has withdrawn.

Commentary

[1] Where circumstances arise that in the opinion of the lawyer require an application to the court for leave to withdraw, the lawyer should promptly inform Crown counsel and the court of the intention to apply for leave in order to avoid or minimize any inconvenience to the court and witnesses.

Commentary

[1] A lawyer may assist in making legal services available by participating in the Legal Aid Plan and lawyer referral services and by engaging in programmes of public information, education or advice concerning legal matters.

[2] As a matter of access to justice, it is in keeping with the best traditions of the legal profession to provide services pro bono and to reduce or waive a fee when there is hardship or poverty or the client or prospective client would otherwise be deprived of adequate legal advice or representation. The Law Society encourages lawyers to provide public interest legal services and to support organizations that provide services to persons of limited means.

[3] A lawyer who knows or has reasonable grounds to believe that a client is entitled to Legal Aid should advise the client of the right to apply for Legal Aid, unless the circumstances indicate that the client has waived or does not need such assistance.

[4] Right to Decline Representation - A lawyer may decline a particular representation (except when assigned as counsel by a tribunal), but that discretion should be exercised prudently, particularly if the probable result would be to make it difficult for a person to obtain legal advice or representation. Generally, a lawyer should not decline representation merely because a person seeking legal services or that person's cause is unpopular or notorious, or because powerful interests or allegations of misconduct or malfeasance are involved, or because of the lawyer's private opinion about the guilt of the accused. A lawyer declining representation should assist in obtaining the services of another licensee qualified in the particular field and able to act. When a lawyer offers assistance to a client or prospective client in finding another licensee, the assistance should be given willingly and, except where a referral fee is permitted by rule 3.6-6, without charge.

Commentary

[1] A person who is vulnerable or who has suffered a traumatic experience and has not yet had a chance to recover may need the professional assistance of a lawyer, and this rule does not prevent a lawyer from offering their assistance to such a person. A lawyer is permitted to provide assistance to a person if a close relative or personal friend of the person contacts the lawyer for this purpose, and to offer assistance to a person with whom the lawyer has a close family or professional relationship. The rule prohibits the lawyer from using unconscionable or exploitive or other means that bring the profession or the administration of justice into disrepute.

Commentary

[1] This Rule establishes, among other things, requirements for communication in the marketing of legal services. These requirements apply to different forms of marketing, including advertisements about the size, location and nature of the lawyer's practice and about awards, rankings and endorsements from third parties.

[2] Examples of marketing that may contravene this rule include

(a) stating an amount of money that the lawyer has recovered for a client or referring to the lawyer's degree of success in past cases, unless the statement is accompanied by a further statement that past results are not necessarily indicative of future results and that the amount recovered and other litigation outcomes will vary according to the facts in individual cases;

(b) suggesting qualitative superiority to other lawyers;

(c) raising expectations;

(d) suggesting or implying the lawyer is aggressive;

(e) disparaging or demeaning other persons, groups, organizations or institutions;

(f) using testimonials or endorsements which contain emotional appeals.

[3] Examples of marketing that do contravene this rule include 

(a)  marketing services that the lawyer is not currently able to perform to the standard of a competent lawyer;

(b) bait and switch marketing, that is marketing by which clients are attracted by offers of services, prices or terms different from those commonly provided to clients who respond to the marketing;

(c) marketing that fails to clearly and prominently disclose a practice that the lawyer has of referring clients for a fee, or other consideration, to other licensees;

(d) failing to expressly state that the marketed services will be provided by licensed lawyers, by licensed paralegals or both, as the case may be;

(e) referring to awards, rankings and third party endorsements that are not bona fide or are likely to be misleading, confusing, or deceptive.

[4] Paragraphs (a) to (d) of Commentary [3] are intended to ensure that marketing does not mislead by failing to make clear what services are actually available and are intended to be provided. It is important that there be no "bait and switch" aspect to marketing. Paragraph (d) is intended to better ensure that prospective clients are aware whether the marketed services being offered will be performed by lawyers or paralegals.

[5] Paragraph (e) of Commentary [3] addresses marketing by reference to awards, rankings and third party endorsements. The terms "awards" and "rankings" are intended to be interpreted broadly and to include superlative titles such as "best", "super", "#1" and similar indications. Awards, rankings and third party endorsements which contravene this rule include those that:

(a) do not genuinely reflect the performance of the lawyer and the quality of services provided by the lawyer but appear to do so;

(b) are not the result of a reasonable evaluative process;

(c) are conferred in part as a result of the payment of a fee or other consideration rather than as a result of a legitimate evaluation of the performance and quality of the lawyer; or

(d) the lawyer could not have demonstrated, at the time of reference, were compliant with this rule.

Particular care should be taken in respect of awards, rankings and third party endorsements referenced in mass advertising, such as in newspaper and internet advertising and advertising on television, billboards, taxis, buses and the like. In such contexts, references to awards, rankings and third party endorsements must be particularly clear and straightforward as there is little opportunity for reflection or appreciation on the part of the potential client or to provide context.

References to awards and honours that are genuine reflections of professional or civic service do not contravene this rule. For example, a potential client may consider it useful to know that a lawyer has been honoured for their service by the Canadian or the Ontario government, the Law Society or a professional organization. However, the lawyer should take care to ensure that such awards and honours reflect a genuine and responsible assessment of the lawyer in the public interest.

In any event, any reference to awards, rankings and third party endorsements must comply with all of the provisions of Rule 4.2-1.

[6] This Rule also requires marketing to be consistent with a high standard of professionalism. Unprofessional marketing is not in the best interests of the public. It has a negative impact on the reputation of lawyers, the legal profession and the administration of justice. The Law Society has acknowledged in the Rules the special role of the profession to recognize and protect the dignity of individuals and the diversity of the community in Ontario. Marketing practices must conform to the requirements of human rights laws in force in Ontario.

[7] Examples of marketing practices that may be inconsistent with a high degree of professionalism would be images, language or statements that are violent, racist or sexually offensive, that take advantage of a vulnerable person or group or that refer negatively to other licensees, the legal profession or the administration of justice.

Commentary

[1] It is important that the public be aware that both lawyers and paralegals are licensed by the Law Society, and of whether it is a lawyer or a paralegal who is offering to provide services.

Commentary

[1] The provision of second opinions is a valuable service to clients. However, second opinion marketing is commonly undertaken with a view to obtaining the retainer rather than providing a second opinion. Such "bait and switch" marketing is inappropriate. The marketing of second opinions is prohibited under this rule, whatever the intent of the marketing.